From National Security to Citizen Security

1. Rachel Neild is a Senior Associate with the Washington Office on Latin America (WOLA) and author of numerous reports and articles on police reform in Haiti and on the role of human rights organizations in promoting public security reform. She most recently authored a series of papers entitled "Themes and Debates in Police Reform; A Manual for Civil Society." She is on the advisory committees of two projects undertaking comparative studies of public security and police, one in South America and the other in the Caribbean.  Return

Thanks to the following individuals for their collaboration and insights: Musa Abdel Fatau, Christine Achieng, Nicole Ball, David Bayley, Peter Bouckaert, Kayode Fayemi, Janine Guthrie, J.P Joshi, Ravi Nair, William O'Neill, Philip Oxhorn, Wilfried Scharf, Makubetsi Sekhonyane, Livingstone Sewanyana, Graeme Simpson, Orin Starn. Any errors in fact or judgement are entirely the author's.  Return

2. Roberto Cuéllar, "Seguridad Cuidadana: entre los derechos humanos y la lucha contra la criminalidad," special edition of Ideéle on Seguridad Cuidadana, No. 91, octubre 1996, Lima, Peru.  Return

3. Wilfried Scharf, Report on the Proceedings of the Consultative Group Meeting on Access to Justice and Penal Reform in Africa, March 18-20, 1999 (Countries: Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Namibia, Tanzania), p. 7.  Return

4. South Africa :White Paper on Safety and Security (October 1998), p. 4, www.polity.org.za/govdocs/white_papers  Return

5. 1998 National Security Laws Campaign of the Asia Pacific Human Rights Alliance (www.hr-alliance.org).  Return

6. Agnes Cheung, "From Economic Turmoil to Social and Political Crisis; Time for Reform," Human Rights SOLIDARITY - the AHRC newsletter, Volume 8 Nos. 3 & 4, March-April 1998 Issue.  Return

7. Ibid.   Return

8. Basil Fernando, Sri Lanka Disappearances and the Collapse of the Police System, AHRC, March 1999, Chapter 2.  Return

9. David Bayley, Patterns of Policing (Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, 1985), pp. 174-5.  Return

10. Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative, Workshop on Police Reforms; A Report (CHRI, New Delhi, August 22, 1998), p. 9.  Return

11. See Kayode Fayemi, The Future of Demilitarisation and Stable Civil-Military Relations in West Africa: Challenges and Prospects for Democratic Consolidation, p. 7, and National Democratic Institute, Report of the Civil-Military Relations Assessment Mission: West and Central Africa (Washington, D.C, April 1997).  Return

12. In India, for example, there has been a consistent fall in the conviction rate from 64.8 percent in 1961 to 42.09 percent in 1995. This has occured over a period when the police force has undergone considerable expansion in size, and has benefitted from improved resources including equipment and education, see Submissions by the Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative on the Questionnaire designed by the Ribeiro Committee on Police Reforms (CHRI, New Delhi, October 1998) p. 5.   Return

13. In India, Nigeria and Mexico, among other countries, police generally buy their way into the police academy. Nigerian police avoid posting to the academy as their opportunity to make illegal income is limited to extorting bribes from trainees to pass exams. Mexican police also have to bribe instructors to graduate and receive training from instructors in how to solicit bribes from the public. Training in police corruption thus starts immediately and most police need to recoup their investments once they are deployed onto the streets. Ill-equipped, trained and motivated Indian police are increasingly involved in criminal activities as well as abusing human rights. Constitutional Rights Project, Human Rights Practices in the Nigerian Police (CRP, Lagos, 1993), Ernesto López Portillo Vargas, "Del orden público a la libertad ciudadana," Nexos, Mexico City, January 9, 1998.  Return

14. Comisión Andina de Juristas, working paper on citizen security, citing Mujica Centro de Estudios Públicos, Chile.  Return

15. May 1996 poll conducted by the Universidad Centroamericana, cited in Laura Chinchilla and José M. Rico, La Prevención Comunitaria del Delito; Perspectivas para América Latina (Center for the Administration of Justice, Florida International University, Miami, 1997), p. 11.  Return

16. Dr. Choo Keng Kun, "Policies and Policing in Malaysia," Crime and Justice International, (Office of International Criminal Justice, http://oicj.acsp.uic.edu/spearmint/Public/Pubs/cji/cji_120213.cfm) and the GAJOP program in Brazil, described below.  Return

17. Ibid.  Return

18. Constitutional Rights Project, Human Rights Practices in the Nigerian Police, supra at note 13, pp. 21, 68 and 71-2.  Return

19. The majority of Latin police forces have separate recruitment and training for beat cops and the officer corps. Brazilian beat cops who make roughly US$500 a month while a police colonel earns about US$6,000 a month. (These figures do not reflect the 1999 devaluation of the Brazilian currency.) Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro, "A Polícia e Consolidação Democrática: o Caso Brasileiro," in São Paulo sem Medo; um Diagnóstico da Violência Urbana (Garamond, São Paulo, 1998), p. 184-185.  Return

20. Paul Chevigny, Edge of the Knife; Police Violence in the Americas (The New Press, New York, 1995), p. 170.  Return

21. Constitutional Rights project, Human Rights Practices in the Nigerian Police (CRP, Lagos, Nigeria, 1993) p. 73.  Return

22. Economic Community of Africa & Global Coalition for Africa, The Role of the African Military in Political Transition and Economic Development: Co-Chairpersons' Summary (Addis-Ababa, May 8-9, 1998), p.1, cited in Kayode Fayemi, "The Future of Demilitarisation."  Return

23. Kayode Fayemi , "The Future of Demilitarisation," p. 2.  Return

24. See, for example, Janine Rauch, State, Civil Society and Police Reform in South Africa (paper presented at the International Society of Criminology conference, Budapest, August 1993). Rauch says that the ANC tended to assume that policing is political and did not pay much attention to law and order issues. She also notes that there was useful experience in peacemaking between ANC membership and police on ground. Sofia Tiscornia, "Documento de Trabajo" (paper presented at the Seminario Internacional sobre Seguridad Publica, Instituto de Política Criminal y Seguridad de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, November 17 and 18, 1998) also notes that law and order issues have traditionally been seen as the domain of the political right in Latin America.  Return

25. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American States (OAS) reports that, in the wake of democratic transitions in Latin America, the police commit the majority of the human rights abuses and benefit from impunity as the military did in the past. Estrella Gutierrez, "Democracy brings change of uniform for impunity," InterPress Service, May 8, 1998.  Return

26. Paul Chevigny, supra at note 21.  Return

27. Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro, "Democracies without Citizenship," Report on the Americas (NACLA, New York, Sept/Oct 1996), p.20.  Return

28. James Holston, "Citizenship in Uncivil Societies," (paper presented at the conference Democracy and the Rule of Law: Institutionalizing Citizenship Rights in New Democracies, McGill University, Montreal, March 19-20, 1998). During the "third wave" period (1972 to 1996), Holston finds that the proportion of uncivil democracies to the total number of electoral democracies doubled. Of the 74 countries that changed from non-democratic to democratic rule since the mid-1970s, 48 or 65 percent of them were "uncivil" in 1996.  Return

29. South African Department for Safety and Security, National Crime Prevention Strategy, (www.gov.za/reports/1996/crime1.html)  Return

30. Latinamerica Press (July 6,1995) cites a report by the Latin American Economic System stating that Latin America is the most violent continent on the planet. Another article in Newsweek (April 20, 1998, Continent of fear by Brook Lamer) states that Latin America's homicide rate is twice that of Africa.  Return

31. Murray, Christopher and Alan Lopez (Eds), The Global Burden of Disease: A Comprehensive Assessment of Mortality and Disability from Diseases, Injuries and Risk Factors in 1990 and Projected to 2020, Volume 1, (Harvard University Press, Boston, 1996); Christopher Murray and Alan Lopez, Global Health Statistics: A Compendium of Incidence, Prevalence and Mortality Estimates over 200 Conditions, Volume 2, (Harvard University Press, Boston,1996). These statistics may surprise many readers, as they indicate that the rate of homicide in Sub-Saharan Africa is twice as high as that in Latin America. Several explanatory factors must be taken into account. First and foremost is the methodology used for data collection and analysis. For example, in the case of developing countries where data is not readily available, it was decided to use the Lorenz model of calculating probabilities. The data provided are thus the result of estimates based on a series of hypotheses which may influence the results obtained to differing degrees. According to this model, it is assumed, for example, that the mortality rate - including the rate of deadly violence - is necessarily higher in remote rural areas than in urban centres. There are reasons to think that this method is better adapted for the calculation of the general death rate than for that of the homicide rate, since other studies indicate that violence tends to be higher in urban centers. The model also employs a standard differential calculated on the basis of all the other causes of mortality examined. The rate of mortality for Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa attributed to other causes thus directly influences the homicide rate. In addition, the source of data used as a basis for the estimates differs: whereas the figures for Latin America were provided by the respective governments (for the year 1990), those for sub-Saharan Africa come principally from studies by the World Bank for 1993. Finally, the method of data collection is not the same, since the homicide rates for countries of the northern part of sub-Saharan Africa were estimated on the basis of data collected for countries of the southern part of the continent. This methodology itself is indicative of the difficulties of building solid data on crime and violence in poor regions. Further work to gather data and develop more accurate methodologies is neded.

Data on Latin America and the Caribbean were provided by the Health Situation Analysis Program of the Division of Health and Human Development, Pan American Health Organization. The figures are based on mortality by cause of death, supplied by PAHO member countries. These data are maintained in PAHO's Technical Information System data base. The homicide rate for Latin America in 1994 was 53.1, while it was 20.5 for the Caribbean. All the above cited by Mayra Buvinic, Andrew Morrison, Michael Shifter, Violence in Latin America and the Caribbean: A Framework for Action, (Technical Study, Sustainable Development Department, Inter-American Development Bank, March 1999).  Return

32. The South African estimate by NEDCOR is cited by Jeff Builta, "South Africa; Crime on the Increase" (Office of International Criminal Justice, www.acsp.uic.edu/oicj/pubs/cje/060101.htm). Guatemala's homicide figures are from the Pan-American Health Organization, cited in Buvinic et al, supra at note 32. El Salvador figures are from the Consejo Nacional para Seguridad Pública, El Salvador, 1997.  Return

33. PERC political risk consultancy, OICJ-PER; The State Department report on human rights practices in the Philippines for 1998 notes high levels of crime, including extensive kidnapping rings. Many people suspect that the police are involved with these kidnapping (http://www.state.gov/www/global/human_rights/1998_hrp_report/philippi.html).  Return

34. Archer and Gartner 1984, cited in Buvinic, et al. See supra at note 30.  Return

35. "Another argument about democracy in Africa revolves around the social pluralism of African societies, particularly ethnic differences. ...[T]he problem is not ethnicity but bad leadership. There is nothing inherently conflictual about ethnic differences. They lead to strife only when they are politicized, and it is the elites who politicize ethnicity in their quest for power and political support." Claude Ake, "Rethinking African Democracy," Journal of Democracy, Vol. 2, No.1, winter 1991, pp 32-44.  Return

36. Iko Mbambo and Etienne Hennops, "South Africa and the Kwazulu-Natal," in Controlling Small Arms Proliferation and Reversing Cultures of Violence in Africa and the Indian Ocean.  Return

37. Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, The State of Human Rights in 1997 (HRCP, Lahore, February 1998).  Return

38. Ibid.  Return

39. Controlling Small Arms Proliferation and Reversing Cultures of Violence in Africa and the Indian Ocean, supra at note 35, p. 9.  Return

40. Mayra Buvinic, Andrew Morrison, Michael Shifter, "Violence in Latin America and the Caribbean: A Framework for Action," supra at note 30.  Return

41. Mark Shaw, South Africa: Crime in Transition (Institute for Strategic Studies, Occasional Paper No. 17, Johannesburg, March 1997), p. 3.  Return

42. Richard Stren, Urban Research in the Developing World; from Governance to Security (Number 16, Occasional Paper Series, Comparative Urban Studies/Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Washington DC).  Return

43. Robert Ayres, Crime and Violence as Development Issues in Latin America and the Caribbean (World Bank, Washongton DC, 1998), citing Caroline Moser, pp. 13-14.  Return

44. "The State in a Changing World" World Development Report 1997, (World Bank, Washington, DC, 1997), pp. 41-42.  Return

45. Ibid.  Return

46. Cited by Sofia Tiscornia, "Documento de Trabajo," supra at note 24.  Return

47. Mark Shaw, South Africa: Crime in Transition (Occasional paper number 17, Institute for Security Studies, Johannesburg, March 1997).  Return

48. Experts who have examined data from different countries say that private security agents outnumber police by three to one in the United States, two to one in Britain and one and a half to one in Japan. David Bayley, State University of New York at Albany.  Return

49. Comments by Manuel Piqueras of the Instituto de Defensa Legal in Peru at the Reunión Internacional de Expertos del Proyecto Policía y Sociedad Democrática, Centro de Estudios del Desarrollo, Santiago, Chile, 18 y 19 de agosto de 1998.  Return

50. Chevigny, Edge of the Knife, p. 210.  Return

51. United Nations, see reports by the human rights mission in Haiti (MICIVIH) and Guatemala (MINUGUA), many reports are available from the United Nations web page at www.un.org/rights/  Return

52. Interview with Peter Bouckaert, Human Rights Watch/Africa, New York, February 22, 1999.  Return

53. "The State in a Changing World," supra at note 43, p. 10.  Return

54. Orin Starn, presentation hosted by Washington Office on Latin America and George Washington University (Washington DC, April 3, 1992); and Orin Starn, "Las Rondas Campesinas de la Sierra sur-central," Las Rondas Campesinas y la Derrota de Sendero Luminoso > (Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, Ediciones IEP, Lima, 1996).  Return

55. International Center for Human Rights and Democratic Development, Foro de Desarrollo Democrático; Construcción de una Cultura de Paz: Buscando el diálogo Estado-Sociedad Civil, Memorias (Lima, 18-21 de agosto de 1997).  Return

56. Wilfried Scharf, Report on the Proceedings of the Consultative Group Meeting on Access to Justice and Penal Reform in Africa, 18th to 20th March 1999 (Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Namibia, Tanzania).  Return

57. In Uganda the Resistance Committees have been transformed into Local Councils, and Mozambique's Popular Courts have been replaced by Community Courts (although they are currently dormant). Ibid.   Return

58. Ibid, p. 7.  Return

59. Studies indicate that these military operations have not led to significant decreases in crime and have contributed to human rights violations. A. Douglas Kincaid and Eduardo A. Gamarra, Florida International University, Disorderly Democracy: Redefining Public Security in Latin America (paper presented to the XIX Annual Conference on the Political Economy of the World System, North-South Center, University of Miami, April 21-22, 1995. Revised July 1995.)  Return

60. Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, State of Human Rights in 1997 (HRCP, Lahore, February 1998), p. 35.  Return

61. Robert Weiner, "War by Other Means: Colombia's Faceless Courts," NACLA, Report on the Americas (New York, Sept/Oct 1996).  Return

62. Special units can be quite effective. In the Philippines, the Anti-Organized Crime Commission has reportedly achieved some success in fighting kidnapping rings. See US State Department Country Reports on the State of Human Rights in 1998: http://www.state.gov/www/global/human_rights/1998_hrp_report/philippi.html  Return

63. Washington Office on Latin America, Clear and Present Dangers: the U.S. Military and the War on Drugs in the Andes (WOLA, Washington DC, 1991).  Return

64. Human Rights Watch, Systemic Injustice : Torture, "Disappearance" and Extra-Judicial Executions and in Mexico (HRW, New York, January 1999), p. 37.  Return

65. Ruiz Harrell, Criminalidad y Mal Gobierno, cited in Ibid., p. 47.  Return

66. José Luis Soberanes, director of the Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas of the Universidad Autónoma Nacional de México, cited by Joel Solomon, "Derechos Humanos y el combate a la delincuencia," La Jornada, Mexico City, June 28, 1998.  Return

67. James Vadackumchery, Human Rights and the Police in India (1996) cited in Thomas Perez, "External Governmental Mechanisms of Police Accountability: Three Investigative Structures" (Vera Institute of Justice, Police in Democratic Societies: Advancing Public Safety and Accountability, prepared for an internal Ford Foundation workshop, 1998).  Return

68. Interview in Clarín, September 13, 1998, cited in Centro de Estudios Legales y Sociales and Human Rights Watch/Americas, La Inseguridad policial: Violencia de las fuerzas de seguridad en la Argentina (CELS, Buenos Aires, October 1998), p. 12.  Return

69. Alvaro Camacho, "Public and Private Dimensions of Urban Violence in Cali" in Charles Bergquist, Ricardo Penaranda and Gonzalo Sanchez (Eds) Violence in Colombia: The Contemporary Crisis in Historical Perspective (Wilmington, Del: SR Books, 1992), 258-259.  Return

70. South Africa : Draft White Paper on Safety and Security, supra at note 4, p. 2.  Return

71. Because of the high level of international engagement, these processes are well documented. See, for example, the following reports of the Washington Office on Latin America: Demilitarizing Public Order; the International Community, Police Reform and Human Rights in Central America and Haiti (1995), Policing Haiti: Preliminary Assessment of the New Civilian Security Force (1995); The Human Rights Record of the Haitian National Police (a joint report of WOLA, Human Rights Watch/Americas and the National Coalition for Haitian Rights, 1997); Can Haiti's Police Reforms Be Sustained? (a joint report of WOLA and National Coalition for Haitian Rights,1998); Risking Failure: The Problems and Promises of the New Civilian Police in El Salvador (1993); Protectors or Perpetrators? The Institutional Crisis of the Salvadoran Civilian Police (a joint report of WOLA and Hemisphere Initiatives, 1996); also George R. Vickers "International Assistance to Internal Security Reforms: Some Lessons from Central America and the Caribbean" and Chuck Call "Police Reform, Human Rights, and Democratization in Post-Conflict Settings: Lessons from El Salvador," both in After the War is Over ... What Comes Next : Promoting Democracy, Human Rights and Reintegration in Post-Conflict Societies (U.S. Agency for International Development Conference, October 30-31, 1997).  Return

72. Ibid, see also George Vickers, "Renegotiating Internal Security: The Lessons of Central America," in Cynthia Arnson (Ed) Comparative Peace Processes in Latin America (Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Stanford University Press, 1999) and William Stanley, "Building New Police Forces in El Salvador and Guatemala: Learning and Counter-Learning," International Conference on Police Reform in Transitions from War to Peace, Norwegian Institute for International Affairs, Oslo, March 5-6, 1999.  Return

73. Civil Liberties Organization, Nigeria, "Above the Law: A report on Torture and Extra-Judicial killing by the Police in Lagos State, Nigeria."  Return

74. See United Sates Department of State, "Nigeria Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 1998" (Washington DC, February 26, 1999.)  Return

75. Sofia Tiscornia, "Documento de Trabajo," supra at note 24.  Return

76. The reforms retired the entire top command of the Buenos Aires police, and then reorganized the force to decentralize deployment, command and specialization. The reform sought to increase community participation and created mechanisms for closer police contact with local municipal and judicial authorities; it also created an ombudsman-like figure (defensor de seguridad) at the municipal and provincicial level, charged with receiving and investigating complaints against police. Martín Abregú, Gustavo Palmieri y Sofia Tiscornia, Informe Nacional: La Situación y los Mecanismos de Control de los Organismos de Seguridad Pública Interior en la República Argentina, p. 105, in Hugo Fruhling (ed) Control Democrático en el Mantenimiento de la Seguridad Interior, (CED/Ediciones Segundo Centenario, Santiago, 1998.)  Return

77. Graeme Simpson and Janine Rauch, Reflections on the National Crime Prevention Strategy, Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation (CSVR), Johannesburg, 1998.  Return

78. Ibid.  Return

79. WOLA, Demilitarizing Public Order, supra at note 70, p. 14.  Return

80. See Rachel Neild, "Confronting a Culture of Impunity; the Promise and Pitfalls of Civilian Review in Latin America" and Andrew Goldsmith, "Police Accountability Reform in Colombia: The Civilian Oversight Experiment," both in Andrew Goldsmith and Colleen Lewis (Eds) forthcoming volume on civilian review (Hart Publishing, Oxford, UK, 2000).  Return

81. Ibid.  Return

82. Author interview with Oscar Gonzalez, Director of the Academía Mexicana de Derechos Humanos, Washington DC, March 8, 1999.  Return

83. Thomas Perez, "External Governmental Mechanisms of Police Accountability: Three Investigative Structures," supra at note 66.  Return

84. There is a very extensive academic literature on community policing. Useful evaluations and literature reviews can be found in the publications of the Police Executive Research Forum (PERF) based in Washington, DC. For an examination of the potential application of community policing in Latin America, see the Washington Office on Latin America, Themes and Debates in Public Security Reform; A Manual for Civil Society, Paper 5, "Community Policing," (WOLA, Washington DC, 1999).  Return

85. ISER, Um ano de Policiamento Comunitário: A experiência de Copacabana, (ISER, Rio de Janeiro, Janeiro 1996).  Return

86. Heather Ward, "Country Report: Uganda," Vera Institute of Justice (New York, 1998).  Return

87. David Bruce, "Community Safety and Security: Crime prevention and development at the local level," African Security Review, Vol. 6, No. 4, 1997.  Return

88. Duxita Mistry, The State of CPFs and their Challenges (Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation, Johannesburg, July 1996).  Return

89. David Bruce, "Community Safety and Security: Crime prevention and development at the local level," p. 4.  Return

90. Claude Ake, "Rethinking African Democracy," Journal of Democracy, V. 2 n.1 winter 91, p. 37.  Return

91. Sofia Tiscornia, "Documento de Trabajo," supra at note 24.  Return

92. Washington Office on Latin America and National Coalition for Haitian Rights, Can Haiti's Police Reforms be Sustained? (WOLA/NCHR, Washington DC, January 1998).  Return

93. The findings are published in Hugo Fruhling (Ed), Control Democrático en el Mantenimiento de la Seguridad Interior, supra at note 75.  Return

94. Unlike the Salvadoran commission and the general model for such commissions, the Honduran council has the power to veto the appointment of the police chief, giving it potentially significant political weight.  Return

95. Civil Liberties Organization, Nigeria, Above the Law: A report on Torture and Extra-Judicial Killing by the Police in Lagos State (CLO, Lagos, 1993).  Return

96. Participant in the workshop session on Políticas Democráticas de Seguridad Cuidadana, at the conference En Camino al siglo XXI, desafios y estratégias de la comunidad latinoamericana de derechos humanos, co-sponsored by the Washington Office on Latin America and the Instituto de Defensa Legal, Lima, Perú, July 23-24, 1999.  Return

97. Dorothy Q. Thomas, "In Search of Solutions: Women's Police Stations in Brazil," in Miranda Davis (Ed), Women and Violence : Realities and Responses Worldwide (Zed Books, London and New Jersey, 1994), pp. 32-42.  Return

98. Ibid, p.38.  Return

99. Robert Ayres, Crime and Violence as Development Issues in Latin America and the Caribbean, supra at note 42, p. 19, citing a Population Council study.  Return

100. Heather Ward, "Country Overview: Uganda," Vera Institute of Justice, supra at note 85.  Return

101. Farida Shaheed, "The Experience in Pakistan," in Miranda Davis (Ed), Women and Violence; Realities and Responses Worldwide (Zed Books, London and New Jersey, 1994), pp. 213-219.  Return

102. Heather Ward, "Country Report: Uganda," Vera Institute of Justice, supra at note 85.  Return

103. Ibid.  Return

104. Ibid, citing an interview with Livingstone Sewanyana, Foundation for Human Rights Initiative.  Return

105. Graeme Simpson, "NGOs and Democracy - building for a new millennium," (Director's Report, Centre for Study of Violence and Reconciliation, Johannesberg, 1997).  Return

106. "The Status of Human Rights Organizations in Sub-Saharan Africa," (www1.umn.edu/humanrts/africa).  Return

107. Remarks made at the July 26-27, 1999, meeting of the project Policía y Sociedad Democrática, Santiago, Chile.  Return

108. Clare Short, DFID, Speech to Kings College, London. DFID has given the Centre for Defence Studies, a think tank associated with Kings College, a three-year contract to conduct research that will assist DFID in incorporating security issues into British development assistance programs.  Return

109. Robert Ayres, Crime and Violence as Development Issues in Latin America and the Caribbean, supra at note 42, p. 25.  Return

110. Many of these papers can be found on the IADB web site at www.iadb.org, social development division, under "violence prevention".  Return

111. Chuck Call, "How Norms are Born: A 'Punctuated-Equilibrium Pinball' Approach," cited in William Stanley, Building New Police Forces in El Salvador and Guatemala: Learning and Counter-Learning, supra at note 71, p.3.  Return

112. Robert Ayres, Crime and Violence as Development Issues in Latin America and the Caribbean, citing John J. DiIulio, "Help Wanted: Economists, Crime and Public Policy," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 10;1, Winter 1996, p.6.  Return

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